Second World War Essay Example for Free

Second World War Essay After the Second World War, there were many organizations that were formed to take care of different interests, mostly political and economical. The General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) was one such organization that was formed in 1947 to protect and trade between member countries (Bagwell, Staiger, 2002). The major aim of the organization was to look at the tariffs and restrictions that affected trade among the member countries and how to harmonise them. To ensure that the objectives of GATT were achieved, the members laid down some principles that were to be followed by all members and be guidance in all their activities. The principles formed the basis for the GATT agreements. Hence, it was not right for any member country to come up with policies that were contrary to the agreed principles. The Most Favoured Nation (MFN) is one major principle that was to be observed by the member countries. This was the first principle that was passed to guide trade. This principle says that no member country should discriminate another member in trade. If a member gives a favour to another, (for instance, lowering the customs duty), then this has to be applied to all other members. Furthermore, in this principle, it means that goods or services from one member country is treated no differently from goods or services from another country. In addition, when the goods of a foreign country are in another’s domestic market, they have to be treated no less than the other commodities (Leonard, 2006). The second principle calls for the member countries to protect their domestic industry by applying customs duty, instead of using trade barriers. In essence, the principle called for the member countries to be transparent in carrying out their trading activities. Thirdly, the reciprocity principle called for the member countries to consult one another on matters that concerned trade between them. The principle required that as one member country called for the other to reduce her tariffs; she should as well reduce hers. This principled was thus aimed at giving mutual benefit to the trading partners. The fourth major principle dealt with improving new trade tariffs. The members agreed that by imposing a new tariff at one point, it needed to maintain the balance. These principles thus provided a framework in which the member countries were to negotiate any trading activities (Faye, 1996). GATT principles emphasised on membership trade as opposed to individualistic trade. Taking the case of non discrimination trading, it meant that only a member country could not be discriminated, but non members could not enjoy such privileges. This meant that competition between GATT members and the non members could not be a healthy competition. However, even though the principle stipulated for non discrimination between members, it was not possible to ensure that this was upheld. This was brought about by the endowment and the technology factor that existed between the member states, causing differences members have in the competition position. If there are no differences in the competitive environment, there can not be any economic welfare benefit that will be found as a result of international trade (Dowlah, 2004). GATT was formed on the principle of reciprocity. This principle has contributed to having negative impact on liberalising trade. If a nation combines the Most Favoured Nations principle and reciprocity, it can force the government to make sure that importation tariffs are lowered further, which again will be a very big disadvantage to the non member countries. When a member country lobbies for the lowering of importation tariffs, it will generally transform to other members reducing their tariffs as a way of reciprocating. This has led to a fight between the exporters advocating for liberalised trade, while the importers fighting to protect their firms. Non GATT members who were interested in liberalising their markets on a non reciprocal form have found it very hard as the members are never willing to liberalise their markets on a non reciprocal manner. This implies that the non GATT members find it very hard to trade and compete on the same level with the GATT members. For the members to liberalise their markets, they have first to see what benefit they are going to get from the others. Off course this goes against the free trade principle, since no member will be willing to trade with a country that is not going to give them any benefit in the trading pattern. Therefore, for any country to trade with another, there has to be tangible benefit that has to be proven between the nations. This is generally very difficult to be found between a member and a non member, as only the members will benefit from the agreements. Through reciprocity principle, a nation will ensure that it benefits from a trade concession by giving out another trade concession. Therefore, if a nation does not have any given concession, then it will be impossible for it to trade with others. The effect of this is that it might inhibit further liberalisation of the markets. This is due to the fact that individual members might be forced to carry out liberalisation of trade, without doing the same to the GATT members. In essence, this action will lead to having trade concessions that GATT members do not have to necessarily match (Brett, 2001). The GATT agreements have contributed to members harming others, especially the new members. Looking at the welfare gain that is supposed to be generated from the free trade, it has to be reflected to the whole members (Cannon Bland, 1993). However, on distributive, it occurs on individual level. This effect can be offset by a shift that can occur in the free trade. The problem is that this is a political decision that can affect how the free trade will occur. In more powerful nations, the governments have been forced to take up trade policies that are detrimental to the weak nations (Narlikar, 2003). There are many other problems that have been facing GATT members but being swept under the rug. Some of these problems have been advantageous to one nation while being disadvantageous to another. For instance, this was witnessed when the Japanese cars entered the American markets. Japan was faced with invisible pressure that it had to voluntarily limit the number of vehicles it was exporting to the United States (http://www. busmgt. ulster. ac. uk/modules/eco811m1/Group%201. doc. ). This is a clear evidence of how GATT members and those who supported these ideologies were bending matters so as to suit their own needs. Some powerful members like the European Union have also been taking the interpretation of GATT principles at liberty and no action has been taken against them. Many of the conflicts that have occurred in the trading patterns within GATT have been mostly solved in a very mystifying manner. It has mostly been in favor of the powerful states leaving the less powerful and the new members at a loss. In coming up with the non trade barriers, there were many other challenges that members faced in the implementation. For instance, France had a requirement that all VCRs that were being imported into the country had to undergo an inspection and pass it before being allowed into the country. The major problem with the policy is that there was a big congestion since the country depended on a single inspector (http://www. busmgt. ulster. ac. uk/modules/eco811m1/Group%201. doc. ). It was also difficult to know if some non trade barriers were genuinely motivated by policies of other partners or it was just a matter of interfering with trade. This can be explained by the instance in which the US limited the exportation of tuna as a way of protecting the dolphins. On the other hand, Mexico was taking a large number of the tuna catches into the American markets disregarding how the mode in which they were caught. After some time, Mexico was blamed on how the number of dolphins had declined. This was challenged but GATT did not do anything on the matter, hence benefiting a few nations (Collins, Bosworth, 1994). The GATT rules were so much concerned with protecting the industrialized countries leaving the poor countries that depended on agriculture out. Hence, it led to the feeling that GATT was out to protect only the rich. GATT principles seemed to be more biased in protecting the rich nations all along leaving the poor nations out. In trying to resolve the matter, the developed countries tried to be flexible with their rules, but it still did not deter the developing countries from agitating for more GATT rights (Dowlah, 2004). As earlier argued, most of the GATT principles were political, hence did not put in effect such issues as the environment (White, 1998). Taking the case in which the GATT principle calls for the member countries to treat imported goods from a member country in the same manner as locally produced goods, it was later changed and the decision only based on finished commodities being sold to the public. In this case, if the goods that had been imported were the same as the domestically produced goods, then it was not necessary to consider the mode at which the commodities were produced (Kahler, 1995). This implies that it is not possible to impose environmental issues on the products being manufactured by the member countries into others that are environmentally vulnerable. This meant that countries that disallowed the importation of especially food products that had been produced by the use of a lot of pesticides and other chemicals to be at the risk of getting its markets flooded with such commodities. This also affected small and medium sized farmers. The farmers who had diversified their productions could not be able to compete at the same level with those dealing with one type of crops at a large scale (Wold, 1996). It is thus true to argue that GATT played a significant role in developing trade and liberalizing the markets. It created a co-operation between the markets that was initially not there (Barons, 1991). However, the system outlived its purpose by benefiting few nations at the expense of others; hence the Uruguay roundtable that led to the formation of the world trade organization was timely. Bibliography Bagwell, K Staiger R. W (2002): Economic Theory and the Interpretation of GATT/WTO; Journal of American Economist, Vol. 46,Barons L (1991): Amending Section 337 to Obtain GATT Consistency and Retain Border Protection, Journal of Law and Policy in International Business, Vol. 22, Brett W (2001): Influence and Lack of Influence of Principles in the Negotiation for Chinas Accession to the Word Trade Organization, The George Washington International Law Review, retrieved on 20th October 2008 from http://findarticles. com/p/articles/mi_qa5433/is_/ai_n21481317. Cannon J. R Bland K. L (1993): GATT Panels Need Restraining Principles, Journal of Law and Policy in International Business, Vol. 24, Collins, S. M Bosworth B . P (1994): The New GATT: Implications for the United States; Brookings Institution, Dowlah C (2004): Backwaters of Global Prosperity: How Forces of Globalization and GATT/WTO Trade Regimes Contribute to the Marginalization of the Worlds Poorest Nations; Praeger, Faye A. A (1996): APEC and the New Regionalism: GATT Compliance and Prescriptions for the WTO, Journal of Law and Policy in International Business, Vol. 28, Hoekman, B. M . Kostecki M. M (1995): The Political Economy of the World Tr

Approches To Decision Making Essay Example for Free

Approches To Decision Making Essay Decision making in the workplace is something that all managers are faced with at one time or another during their careers. Some decisions are minor and some are major, but what we have to keep in mind is the decisions we make can make or break a company. Being the one who is faced with making these types of decisions can make our job more stressful, but thankfully there are steps we can learn to take which is known as the decision making process. This process helps us identify the problem and look at alternatives to help us solve the problem. Once the problem is identified it is up to the manager to look at all areas of the situation and weigh out the pros and cons of the decisions you have come up with. Never jump at the first thought that comes to mind always look at the decision criteria. After reading over the scenarios provided I have decided to go with scenario 2 which provides information about a problem that has been brought to the nursing home administrators and the infectious control officer’s attention. According to the information that I have read the nursing home is experiencing high infection rates within its facility and these rates are increasing. If the nursing home keeps experiencing high rates of infection they can be fined and with this type of facility many more patients can become ill if nothing is done. So as you can see this is a situation that we have to give prompt attention to and find the best solution for before anyone else falls ill or the company has to close its doors. There are different approaches to decision making that we can explore, but we need to find the best approach for this certain scenario. After reviewing the different types of approaches the two I would choose are rationality and intuition. The reason for choosing thes e types of approaches are because this seems to best for this scenario. When using rationality this means the person will make logical and consistent choices that are best for everyone involved and anyone who holds a management position knows that by thinking  things thru rationally will give you the best choice of action to take. The reason for this is because you are weighing the pros and cons and thinking logically. The second approach I would take is relying upon intuition. I know some people think that it is almost impossible to make a decision upon someones intuition, but if you know the facts and know the situation you can usually go by your intuition. The reason is because you know the problem that exists and know there has to be steps made to correct this issue quickly. Making decisions as a group can be a great thing because everyone can give their input and you can toss around different ideas and suggestions. There is a downside to making group decisions because there are times certain people will not be open to suggestions because they want to be the only one who is right and this can take up time and cause conflict. References Chapter 3 foundations of decision making www.ebusinessmanagement.com ezinearticles.com

View of white women in interracial relationships

View of white women in interracial relationships A Qualitative Analysis of Black Womens Constructions of White Women in Interracial Relationships. Research, especially media discourses suggest and show that black women have a negative discourse towards white women who have interracial relationships. Therefore this exploratory qualitative study used focus groups to investigate how black women construct interracial relationships and white women who have interracial relationships. Social constructionist guided the discourse theory methodology. Participants described Introduction Since the 1980s social constructionism has become an increasingly influential perspective within psychology (e.g., Burr, 1995). Social constructionism suggests that human experience, including perception is mediated historically, culturally and linguistically (Willig, 2007). Therefore for this study, it is important to understand gender and race historically, also black and white unions within a historical context. Interracial relations in a historical context, the construction of race and multiculturalism Historically, interracial unions have played an integral role in the construction of racial categories. Interracial sex and marriage became deviant within the construction of a white identity that was in opposition to blacks. The underlying basis for interracial sexuality as deviant being the claim that blacks and whites are biologically and culturally different. An important part of this concept of race is based on black peoples experiences, constructions and discourses about whites as threats to racial purity (Childs, 2005). The issue of interracial sex and marriage is an integral part of the construction of race and racial groups, with the opposition to and the fear of interracial relationships often used as a means to execute and justify racist ideologies and practices. Thus, Ideas of race as biological difference emerged with slavery, as a justification. So both the construction of white/black relationships as problematic, and the abuse seen during slavery, can be seen as emergi ng along with changing discourses of race. During black slavery, among white peoples interracial sexual relationships was constructed as deviant, and this idea of deviancy was primarily aimed at preventing black male slaves from engaging in sexual acts with white women. It has been documented that those who did engage in interracial sexual relationships would be punished. However, for black people there is a complicated and painful history to black and white interracial relationships, as a result the roots of the hostility are different from white people. The discourses on interracial relationships are complex. The hostility that black communities may have to wards interracial relationships derives from a social and collective memory of violation by whites. Historically blacks as a group have had to deal with the devaluation by whites and this in turn has effective blacks identity which has as a result shaped the attitudes and responses to interracial relationships. It has been well documented that black women were allegedly raped and sexually abused by white slave masters who all play a huge part in the sociohistorical construction of race and the rules of race relations (Childs, 2005). Social constructionist propose that the concept of race, for example the belief that the classification based on skin colour and other skin deep properties like body shape or hair style maps onto meaningful, important biological kinds which is a pseudo biological concept that has been used to justify and rationalise the unequal treatment of groups of people or others (Machery Faucher 2005). Social constructionism became prevalent mainly in the 1970s. It became recognised that the biological concept of subspecies, that is, of population of conspecifics that are genetically and morphologically different from each other, could not be applied to human. Assigning an individual to a race does not buy the inferential power you are usually warranted to expect from a biological kind term. Also, classifications based on different traits such as skin colour, body shape hair etc usually cross cut each other (Brown Armelagos 2001). Thus, the racialist tenet that skin colour and other skin deep properties pick up different biological groups has been assumed to be false. Thus, biology has fuelled the recent racial scepticism of social constructionists, that is, the view that races do not exist. But social constructionists about race are not mere sceptics. They usually underscore the instability and diversity of human beings concept of races. For instance Omi and Winant (2002) state that effort must be made to understand race as an unstable and decentered complex of social meanings constantly being transformed by political struggle. Banton (1970) suggest that this notion is a modern intervention, rooted in the eighteenth century taxonomies of Linnaeus and Blumenbach, for them, there were times or places where people did not have any concept of race (Machery Faucher 2005). The constructionist contribution to the understanding of racialism is important. It suggests that individuals concept of race do not occur in a social vacuum: social environment are important to explain the concept of our concept of race. This helps to identify the diversity of indi viduals concept of race across cultures. There has been growing literature in evolutionary psychology and evolutionary anthropology about racialism. Although no consensus has yet emerged, several proposals have recently attempted to describe the underlying cognitive mechanism responsible for the production of racial concepts (e.g., Hirschfield, 2001; White, 2001; Machery Faucher 2005). The two latter approaches are both a needed supplement to the social constructionist approach. The recurrence of racial classification across cultures and the commonalties between them suggest that racial classifications are the product of some universal psychological disposition. There is much literature that addresses the issue of interracial relationships and marriages specifically, for example both quantitative and qualitative methods have been implemented. Interracial heterosexual relationships have been explored from many viewpoints. Qualitative research has been conducted on black men and white women interracial couples (McNamara, Tempenis, Walton 1999; Rosenblatt, Karis, Powell 1995; Spickard 1989) and quantitative data of black and white attitudes towards interracial dating (Davis Smith 1991). Social sciences have focused on how and why interracial couples have come together, the demographic similarities and differences and the comparisons of interracial relationship compared with same race relationships (Davis 1941; Gaines et al. 1999). Davis (1941) article deals with interrelation between marriage and cast and Gains (1991) research is concerned with the differences between secure and insecure individuals among both sexes in heterosexual interraci al couples. Qualitative studies of interracial relationships has focused on the views, experiences and opinions of the couples and their relationships with society and the community (McNamara et al 1999; Root 2001) Some researchers have suggested that the number of couples, although increasing has remained small because of the lack of acceptance. It has been found that ethnic minority communities at times consider minority individuals that pair with partners as race traitors or whitewashed (Pan, 2000). Yet, there is little research on the ways that interracial couples are socially constructed and the societal responses from black womens towards interracial relationships. Existing research on interracial relationships show that they do not look at examining race as a changing socio historical concept and construct. Researchers have studied interracial relationships without first acknowledging race and racial groups as socially constructed and subject to change and conflict instead they reproduce the idea of race as real and a natural phenomenon. While the latter literature review has provided important perspectives on understanding interracial relationships, the current study is different as the study places an importance on societal responses to interracial relationships from the voices of British black women. Evolved Cognition and Ethnicity and Culture: Cultural Transmission Ethnicity and culture are related phenomena and bear no intrinsic connection to human biological variations or race. Ethnicity refers to cluster of people who have common culture traits that they distinguish from those of other people. People who share a common language, geographic locale or place of origin, religion or sense of history, traditional values, values and so on, are perceived, and view themselves as constituting, an ethnic group (e.g., Jones,1997 Smedley 1999). However, according to Smedley and Smedley (2005) ethnic groups and ethnicity are not fixed, bounded entities, they are flexible and open to change and they are usually self defined (Barth, 1998) Theories of cultural transmission provide the proper framework for integrating the two main traditions in the study of racialism (Richerson Boyd, 2004). The idea is that many beliefs, preferences, reasoning patters are socially learned. Similar to the traditional social learning theory, they are acquired from ones social environment form an individuals cultural parents for instance (Boyd Richerson, 1985). According to Machery Faucher (2005) race is culturally transmitted, which lines with social constructionist reliance on traditional theories of social is learning, that is, with the idea that the concept of race is acquired from an individuals social environment. This in turn gives explanations as to why a culture, at a time, people tend to have the same concept of race. This also explains why different cultures at different times have endorsed the same concepts. The Social Construction of Interracial Couples The ideas of race has been produce and reproduced though the construction of racial groups and social interaction, which had led to consequences in beliefs and practices. Therefore the images and meaning attached to black and white relationships are not simply produced by the black women but are rather constructed, socially, culturally, politically in their society and by the varying social groups (Childs, 2005). Therefore the black womens understanding of their own identities are shaped by the responses of others and the images of how black women oppose to interracial relationships in which exists. Unnatural discourse In British culture interracial relations is probelematised. Interracial sex is treated as a problem. Recent films such as Jungle Fever, Bodyguard and Rising Sun have portrayed interracial sexual relations as acts of deviance (Mencke, 1976). These narratives have been accompanied by severe moral lessons about destructive nature of such unions, which often damage not only the lives of the character but their family and friends too. Whatever the situation, the unifying element of such popular representation is that interracial relationships do not work. Academia controversy often surrounds the culturally authoritative discourse of science. This has been used overtime to justify a multitude of agendas, not least of which has been to ensure a moral argument for slavery and the conquest of the New World. Infused with notions borrowed from Darwins theories of evolution and natural selection, fears expressed in such writings have typically been grounded on notions of purity and degeneration of races through mixing of blood. Typically, researchers conclude that participants in interracial relations are deviant, rebellious or rejected by their racial group (Buttny, 1987; Muhsam, 1990), it is clear that racial categories are bounded within discursive constructs that make any transgression appear abnormal, if not wrong. Sexual relations between black men and white women have generally been located in the discourses of the unnatural. Sexuality between races has been constructed as transgression. Saxton (1995) argues that race thinking rests on class foundation , and it is also the case that ideologies of racism, one articulated, take on a life of their own and assume many contested and varied forms. Hooks (1990) puts forward, that our attempt to destabilise the naturalised discourses that define and construct race and sexuality is confounded by language (Tyner Houston, 2000). Mapping a discourse The current discourse against interracial relationships includes the following. First, it entails a range of racialised masculinities and images of what it means to be a man differentiated by race and class and at times drawing in racist stereotypes of the nineteenth and twentieth centurys. Secondly white femininity is racialised; white women who choose interracial relationships are constructed as sexually loose or sexually radical. Third, the discourse generates a view interracial relationship as transgressing fixed racial or cultural boundaries. These three elements presuppose a fourth, the idea of race as explained earlier as a fixed and essential axis of differentiation and sixth, the idea of cultural differences is tied to race and biological belonging (Frankenberg, 1993). Social Construction of Black women, Black Femininity, Gender and Mixed race as Ideal Research on the issues of black womens, appearance and the marriage market is also important (Childs, 2000). Morrison (1972) wrote that there are devastating effects of persistent European ideals of beauty on the self image of black women. While light skin blacks are evaluated as more attractive and more victorious in terms of income and employment (Hughes Hertel, 1990). This of course plays a huge role in the way that black women construct interracial dating and specifically the white women since the discrimination based on skin colour may be associated with the decision to date interracially as a privileging of lighter skin and the lightest skin of all white (Russell, Wilson Hall 1993; Childs 2005). It is important to understand that there are a dual set of myths which distinguishes the construction of black women from other groups. The social construction of race is dependent on gender categorisation and the social construction of gender is dependent on racial categorisations. This process of using race to define gender has a long standing history. According to White (2001) he argues that nineteenth century scientists often used race to explain gender and gender to explain race. The result of this is the segregation between groups of individuals based on their race and genders; where some groups are portrayed as dominant and normal and others as subordinate are based on social construction , the consequences of this is real and determines the power relations both between and within groups. In an effort to maintain these power relations and structures, cultural myths and symbols which are mainly based on stereotypes are employed. And as such, cultural symbols of black womanhood serve to mask as normalise the inequitable position of black women. As a result of racing gendering, black women find themselves marginalised on two fronts, race and gender. They are margin isled because they are non white. This marginalisation occurs on two levels, the first being that there is a construction of black women in relation to white men. Secondly, there is the construction of black women in relation to white women. Overtime time, these multiple marginalisations resulted in the development and redevelopment of a number if cultural symbols and icon used to represent black womanhood (Zachery, 2009). Dominant discourses: Now Interracial sexual relationships remain controversial both in the United Sates and the United Kingdom. Examining the discourse on interracial relationships brings a range of issues key to comprehending the impact of racism both on black womens experience and worldview and on social organisation more broadly. Interracial relationships continue to be a social issue in the black communities. Most black- white relationships involve a black man and white women according to the UK census. According to Collins (2000) black women remain called upon to accept and love the mixed race children born to brothers friends and relatives who at the same time often represent tangible reminders of their own rejection (2000, 195). Dickson (1993) suggest that interracial relationships between black men and white women along with the high murder rates in black communities, and levels of incarceration are viewed as the source of the shortage of good black men. Although statistics show that there is an increase in black white interracial relationships and marriages, the oppositions to these relationships have not necessarily disappeared. No matter how these relationships are viewed, what are interesting about them are the responses they receive from black women. An in depth analysis on black British womens constructions on heterosexual interracial relationships will provide a better understanding of this phenomenon. Therefore this project will look specifically look at the way in which British black women respond to interracial relationships and specifically their constructions towards white women who have interracial relationships. The project will look at the way black women construct interracial relationtions by asking them about their attitudes and their beliefs of interracial relationships, and popular culture and media depictions. I will discuss the images and discourses that have been constructed about interracial relationships and how these images and discourses contribute to the construction and maintenance of how black women construct white women who have interracial relationships. I approach the study of interracial relationships, understanding these interracial unions as socially constructed. It is important to understand that this will not be a nationwide representative study of attitudes, beliefs or occurrences that can be generalised. Rather this project provides an ethnographic look at black womens constructions through in depth focus groups Method Participants I recruited my participant by handing out a recruitment sheet outside lectures. The recruitment letter explained the nature of the study and if the student wished to participate in the study to please contact me. My participants were either students at London Southbank University or known to me personally. Their age ranged from 16- 45, all of my participants were Black British women; All of my participants were born in Britain. It was made clear to all of the participants that they could withdraw from the study at anytime. Design Discursive analysis provides an ideal opportunity for studying ideology in psychology. In the 1970s the materialization of a new paradigm in social psychology occurred. New paradigm researchers called for a turn to language which was inspired by theories and research which had emerged from other disciplines. This turn to language was the setting of the emergence during the 1980s, in social and developmental psychology and in other major parts of psychology (Parker, 2005). Studies such as Henriques et al, (1984) illustrated how language that is spoken can be organised as patterns of discourse. Discourse had a theoretical basis in the social constructionist approach (e.g., Burr, 2003). The social constructionist perspectives purpose was that understanding the study of human interaction and the linguistic communication is of importance. According to discursive psychology, language does not merely express experiences, rather, language also constitutes experiences and the subjective, psyc hological reality (Potter Wetherell 1987; Shotter 1993; Wetherell 1995); therefore, construction of social reality through the use of language enables discourse analysis to come about. This social process sustains this knowledge through social interactions (Burr, 1995) discourse can alter and adapt overtime; therefore, discourse are historically and culturally identifiable and is analysed through the language employed in the social interactions. This method is what I thought is best suited for my final year project as I was not looking for the participants personal experiences but rather how the participants construct inter-racial relationships and white women who have inter-racial relationships. Potter and Wetherell (1987) introduced discourse to gain a better understanding of social texts through examining social life and social interactions. Its aim was to scrutinise discourse through analysing verbal and written communication. A number of themes are common in discourse analysis these include rhetoric, voice, footing, discursive repertoires and the dialogical nature of talk. Potter and Wetherell 1987; Wetherell Potter 1992 provided some of the best work on social psychology. It was developed as an analysis of racist interpretive repertoire. This entail suggested how discourse functions ideologically. For example a discourse of heterosexuality defines what is deviant. The practice of discourse analysis involves a range of procedures designed to encourage the researchers to process and reprocess their material these include transcription, coding and recoding. According to Potter (2003), Discourse analysis is the study of how to talk and texts are used to perform actions. He suggested that discourse analysis research should centre on four aspects. How language forms and constructs accounts on social things; how actions and social practices are achieved through linguistics; the ideologies of a particular social action, and, looking at psychological concepts through discourse. Therefore this method will be used to analyse the transcript. Black womens constructions towards interracial relationships and white women who have interracial relationships; Transcript of two focus group discussions between young black women will be analysed. An examination of the text will be scrutinised closely, known as coding (Potter Wetherell, 1987) coding helps to select relevant information from the text. However, there will always be parts of discourse in which cannot be analysed; thus the same text can be analysed again, generating further insight (Potter Wetherell, 1987; Wetherell Potter 1992; Willig 1995, 1997, 1998) the data will analyse any key discourse that show from the data and how the data constructs that. The discourse analysis will also pinpoint any interpretive repertoires (Gilbert, Mulkay, 1984) and instances that occur in the text. This will require reading and re- reading the transcript, making various notes and coding gathered by the repertoires. Procedure The process of recruiting participants was not difficult, mainly because some of the participants were known personally to me and that I also recruited LSBU students, therefore the participants were easily accessible. Needless to say, the women who took part in the project did so voluntarily. They also knew they could refuse to answer particular questions, or discontinue with the discussion at any given time. I advertised by handing out a participation information sheet (see Appendix A) to several students. I gave them a brief overview of the study and asked whether they would be interested in taking part in the study. Two focus group discussions took place in a private area in the LSBU library where they were all given consent forms to sign (see Appendix B). Predetermined questions were asked and the process was recorded using a tape recorder and dictaphone. Private matters in regards to relationships were asked therefore all participants were introduced to one another to ensure that there was no discomfort. The nature of the study was explained to all the participants individually and within the focus group discussion so that no offence was taken when the questions were asked amongst one another. I guided the focus group to express both their opinions and thoughts on the subject at hand and ensured that the discussion did not go off tangent, therefore limitations were applied. I then later transcribed the focus group and drew out themes that emerged from the discussion. Materials Recruitment To recruit the participants an information sheet was handed out, which can be found in Appendix A. It was intended to be clear about the criteria of the project whilst also being highly informative. Schedule Participants were instructed to answer questions which can be found in Appendix C Analysis The transcript is one of two focus group discussion about interracial relationships and how black women construct interracial relationships and how they construct white women who have interracial relationships. The first focus group consisted of six young black women and the second consisted four. Several themes emerged from the data. The analysis revealed, through grammatical and stylistic strategies numerous interpretive repertoires Wetherell and Potter (1998): deviation, extrematisation, constructing relationship as sexual, generalisation and hypersexualisaion normalising in order to put themselves in positions to validate their views on white women and interracial relationships in general. Both focus group discussions justify their actions through language as to why they have these views; this is when discourses are visible. Focus group discussion between young black women students Extract 1 discussion transcript 1 (Page 1) interpretive repertoire: Positioning themselves Participants constructed meaning through shared conversation: they mutually positioned themselves using a variety of discursive techniques. The participants also justified their answers by using discursive markers. Sianne like the other black respondents employed a discursive strategy I am not fazed by it, but by also offering disclaimers doesnt bother me. However they give several reasons as to why interracial couples are problematic Sianne; When I see a black man with a white woman Im not phased to be honest as the saying goes Love is Blind. But sometimes I find that when I pass a mixed couple sometimes the man will avoid glancing in my direction and the woman seems tense. (Laughter) From the language used, Sianne and the other black females use discursive strategy by first stating that they are not against interracial couples Im not fazed by it (line 74-76) It doesnt bother me but show signs that the relationship lacks security. For example Sianne states that the man avoids looking at her and the woman seems tense. According to Wetherell and Potter (1992) posits that racism must be viewed as a series of ideological effect with flexible, fluid and varying content. Therefore, racist discourse should not be viewed as static and homogeneous, but as dynamic and contradictory. Some of the participants state that they do not have a problem with an interracial coupling. However, they use language amongst each other witch contradict themselves (Lines 91-92). Saphira: I dont really think anything unless the black guy is really attractive and the white woman is ugly The extract opens with a disclaimer (Hewitt Stokes, 1975) a disclaimer is a verbal devise that anticipates, and rejects, potentially negative attributions. I dont really think anything disclaims possible attribution of intolerance in the light of the comments in which are about to follow unless the black guy is really attractive. Extract 2 discussion transcripts 1 (Page) interpretive repertoire: Constructing relationship as sexual and deviant A significant piece of the opposition from the black women was why a black man would chose to date a white woman. They construct meaning as to why they becoming interracially involved and the implications for black women. Several of the participants construct white women as easy and more inclined to perform oral sex as the reason why a black man will choose to be in a relationship with a white woman. Saphira; I think white woman are more open to trying new things sexually that a black man wouldnt get from a black woman, I think they come across easier .   When asked why a black man would choose to be in a relationship with a white women. A variety of terms was employed by the participants. This included easier (Saphira) and stress free lifestyle (Jamila) open-minded to certain sexual acts (Justina). Justina; I personally think that a black man would be in a sexual relationship with a white woman because, she may be more inclined to perform certain sexual acts that may be a taboo in a black womans eyes and may also be more open-minded to certain sexual acts such as oral sex or oral sex in comparison to a black woman (Lines 96-101). Black women thus positioned interracial relationships as sexual and constructed white women as easier and stress free. It shows that white femininity is racialsied; that white women are easy and are sexually radical. A rhetorical technique employed here is constructing corroboration and consensuses (Edwards et., 1992) white women are more open minded to oral sex acts by saying that more than one women behave this way. This technique is used again by Justina this may be a taboo in black women eyes she positions herself to the category entitlement Extract 3 discussion transcripts 1 and 2 (Page) interpretive repertoire: Shortage of good black men Saphira; When I see a good looking black guy with a white woman, I cant help but be disappointed and look and think why?.   The construction of black and white couples (focusing here on a black man with a white women) as outside the norm, Saphira also constructs that these couplings as deviant (lines 155-156). Tanya: I know this is really judgmentalà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦but I automatically think that the black man is not really black! By this I mean he is surrounding by white friends he has never dated a black female and deep down he wishes he was white. Its a bit of a waste inità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ One theme in which was visible in both transcripts was the shortage of good black men. Tanya states in the above extract its a bit of a waste init signifying that black men have value before becoming involved with white women. This construction exposes black racism and opposition to interracial relationships. Tanya also uses a disclaimer, a rhetorical devise that allows her to put forward what may be seen as judgemental views Pricilla: discussed how black men of high status with wealth get with white women because they see them as a symbol of success (Lines 82-83). In lines 82 to 83 Pricella constructs more general oppositional categories of them Extract 4 discussion transcript 1 (Page) interpretive repertoire: Diluting the race Traitor Black communities can act as deterrent to interracial relationships as these relationships are constructed as incompatible with black cultural affinity. In other words for a black man to engage in an intimate relationship with a white women means that one is a traitor to white society and in the process sold out the black society. During the focus group discussion Pricella constructs black men who get with white women as traterish especially African men (lines 242-244). Pricella: doesnt make me feel anything but I aint gona alie I think its traiterish its like they getting with a white women is the ultimate price for them when a black men get status even African men Ooh white women Saphira: also state that people may view the black man as

Saint Joan of Arc :: Essays Papers

Saint Joan of Arc The Lindau Gospel Book Cover is a signatory representative of the early and mid 9th century due to its quality to compel and garner admiration from the common masses. The cover exemplifies the attributes of many other works from its period. It is a safe assumption that the majority of the citizens that lived during the time these works were created couldn’t read, and that works of art such as the book cover could function as a metaphor for the story contained within. Stories like the Passion could be depicted on a slab of stone or pressed into a sheet of gold to show levels of importance on particular moments. One example of a multi-level drawing is that of the Utrecht Psalter. The Psalter, created around 820 in Reims, is a preliminary source for the style of metaphor overlaid in visual representation1. The Psalter provided an interpretation to all of the Biblical allusions, sometimes very cleverly. Though the type of visual representation found in the Psalter are thought to be modeled after earlier forms2 there is a certain simplicity in style that seems to compel not the courtesans, but the common citizen3 . The images are highly stylized, a far cry from the art of the aristocracy; even more telling, it was rendered in the very local artistic style of the workshops of Reims4. The drawings are impressionistic5 and worked as a puzzle for the viewer6. There was a definite link reaching out from the work to the viewer, the Psalter served as a prototypical way of engaging the audience in a visual tale while communicating the literal story behind it7. The viewer was able to take a mental pictu re of a liturgical event8. This style progressed and found its way to other visual forms9. The ivory book covers illustrating Psalms 50 and 51 had drawn influence and may have been in fact directly modeled after the Utrecht Psalter10. The ivories depict the same scenes from the Psalms drawn into the Utrecht Psalter, however, the ivory panels are more of an abridged version11. The progression from drawing to book covers represents a certain leap in audience and visual structure even if just momentarily or inadvertently, since ivory was a luxury few could afford, and the meticulous undercutting even fewer12. The scenes did however grow in leaps and bounds in the method of figural representation, realistic drapery, and depth that is monumentally achieved in such a minimal space13.

Use of the Classical Tragic Mold in Shakespeares Macbeth :: Macbeth essays

Macbeth: The Use of the Classical Tragic Mold in Character Development In Shakespeare's tragedy, Macbeth, there are many characters. Only one character stands out, and his name is in the title of the play. Macbeth's character was made in the mold of the ancient Greek tragic hero. Besides being endowed by Shakespeare with an abundance and variety of potential traits and characteristics, Macbeth also follows the Classical Tragic Mold, which is presented with a hefty supply of hubris, and in this case, ambition. Because Macbeth follows the Classical Tragic Mold, he is a Classical Tragic Hero. The first step of the Classical Tragic Mold is recognizing the problem. The problem in Macbeth is not a true problem that presents itself outwardly. The problem for the character of Macbeth is deciding if he should listen to his ambition and kill Duncan. At first, he ponders reasons why not to kill his king. He at first thinks that he cannot kill him because of four reasons: Macbeth is Duncan's subject, Duncan is a good king, they are blood-related, and Macbeth is his host. These reasons dissuade Macbeth at first, but later Lady Macbeth convinces him, by questioning his manhood, to commit the dastardly crime. When he finally murders Duncan, the problem comes to closure. But, even long before then, the next step in the mold had begun: the descent into the abyss. The "decent into the abyss" is the second step in the Classical Tragic Mold. It is started with Macbeth's second soliloquy. This is after Macbeth hears from Duncan that Malcolm was to be named the Prince of Cumberland. "The Prince of Cumberland! That is a step on which I must fall down, or else o'erleap, for in my way it lies ... Let not light see my black and deep desires." (Shakespeare, 281). This quote from the soliloquy indicates that Macbeth has, indeed, told himself that he will commit the murder of Duncan, although he doesn't actually admit it until his wife pressures him to do so. With this decision, the reader (or audience) reads (or sees) that Macbeth is straying from the righteous path, and descending into the abyss, even though he is keeping his feelings to himself. His decision to murder Duncan tarnishes his "war hero" image and casts it in an ominous shadow. The third step in the mold has two parts and is known as Transformation and Transcendence. The character of Macbeth goes into Transformation during his fourth soliloquy. "...I have lived long enough. My way of life is fall'n into the sear..." (Shakespeare, 343).

John Wayne :: essays research papers

Arguably the most popular — and certainly the busiest — movie leading man in Hollywood history, John Wayne entered the film business while working as a laborer on the Fox Studios lot during summer vacations from university, which he attended on a football scholarship. He met and was befriended by John Ford, a young director who was beginning to make a name for himself in action films, comedies, and dramas. Wayne was cast in small roles in Ford's late-'20s films, occasionally under the name Duke Morrison. It was Ford who recommended Wayne to director Raoul Walsh for the male lead in the 1930 epic Western The Big Trail, it was a failure at the box office, but the movie showed Wayne's potential as a leading actor. During the next nine years, be busied himself in a multitude of B-Westerns and serials — most notably Shadow of the Eagle in between occasional bit parts in larger features such as Warner Bros.' Baby Face. But it was in action roles that Wayne excelled, e xuding a warm and imposing manliness onscreen to which both men and women could respond.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In 1939, Ford cast Wayne as the Ringo Kid in the adventure Stagecoach, a brilliant Western of modest scale but tremendous power, and the actor finally showed what he could do. Wayne nearly stole a picture filled with Oscar-caliber performances, and his career was made. He starred in most of Ford's subsequent major films, whether Westerns (Fort Apache, She Wore a Yellow Ribbon, Rio Grande, The Searchers ); war pictures (They Were Expendable); or serious dramas (The Quiet Man). He also starred in numerous movies for other directors, including several extremely popular World War II thrillers (Flying Tigers, Back to Bataan, Fighting Seabees, Sands of Iwo Jima); costume action films (Reap the Wild Wind, Wake of the Red Witch); and Westerns (Red River). His box-office popularity rose steadily through the 1940s, and by the beginning of the 1950s he'd also begun producing movies through his company Wayne-Fellowes, later Batjac, in association with his sons. Most of these films were extremely successful, and included such titles as Angel and the Badman, Island in the Sky , The High and the Mighty ( my personal favorite), and Hondo. The 1958 Western Rio Bravo, directed by Howard Hawks, proved so popular that it was remade by Hawks and Wayne twice, once as El Dorado and later as Rio Lobo.

Essay on Horatio Essay

Often overlooked in the critical analysis of the play, Horatio is a character whose actions are of no major importance, yet in the context of the play’s meaning, his role is crucial. Like the Ghost, Horatio helps Shakespeare to refine the concept of the virtuous man. This is shown through Horatio’s ideals, his relationship with Hamlet, their differences and similarities. We assume that his studies in Wittenberg make develop his rational thinking and thus he would naturally reject the possibility of a ghost – however he is the one to tell Hamlet about his father’s apparition. Even after witnessing the Ghost, Horatio remains a rationalist. His mind is sober, and he encourages Hamlet to preserve self-control – a key virtue of the Stoics. Yet when Hamlet dies (possibly in Horatio’s arms, depending on stage directions) the roles reverse – Horatio, charged by Hamlet’s passion, almost dies with the prince. For the audience, Horatio becomes a separate and important entity as Hamlet delivers the speech about his character that defines Hamlet’s own ideals. Shakespeare gives Hamlet the chance to voice the faculties he admires, thus giving us another chance to understand the greater aspirations and aims of the protagonist. He says: ‘Horatio, thou art e’en as just a man As e’er my conversation coped withal. Nay do not think I flatter,†¦ †¦ Since my dear soul was mistress of her choice, And could of men distinguish, her election Hath sealed thee to herself; for thou hast been As one, in suff’ring all, that suffers nothing; A man that Fortune’s buffets and rewards Hath ta’en with equal thanks; and blest are those Whose blood and judgment are so well co-mingled That they are not a pipe in Fortune’s finger To sound what stop she please. Give me that man. That is not passion’s slave, and I will wear him In my heart’s core, ay in my heart of heart, As I do thee. ‘ (3. 253-73) Horatio is not passion’s slave – if passions, like Fortune, is personified, then it becomes a sort of ancient deity that chooses to blind humans and deny them all rational choice. To a certain extent, all other characters in the tragedy are to varying degree subject to their passions. Horatio by contrast is calm and stable; he is skeptical and rational, as can be seen from his encounter with the Ghost. If passion is a disease-like quality that Hamlet believes to be defectious, then Horatio exemplifies a pure and honourable person – honest by definition, since he does not allow passions to fool his conscience and justify any selfish means or aims. However the most important aspect highlighted by the Prince is Horatio’s philosophical understanding of life. The speech suggests Horatio is a follower of Stoicism, an ancient way of thinking developed once by the ancients and then revived by the great thinkers of the Renaissance. Founded by Xenon, (334-262b. c. ) the philosophy taught to discipline one’s behaviour according to one’s rational mind. Hamlet states that his ideal is such. However the prince himself is not ‘free’ or deprived of passions. The qualities he admires in Horatio are starkly different to the ones he himself displays in his very first monologue. He speaks of evil as ‘self-slaughter’ and cannot come to terms with things ‘rank and grosse in nature’ (1. 2) Hamlet is a man of many different moods and tempers; in this one speech he begins disgusted, grows more passionate in his hatred and it is not until the last two line of that speech when Hamlet says ‘I must hold my tongue’ and regains control of his emotions. It is clear the protagonist cannot remain unaffected when he sees evil’s manifestation in any form; his whole being actively protests and rejects amoral and dishonourable actions. Because of this, Hamlet’s ideal human nature that Shakespeare personifies through Horatio’s character remains, until the time comes at the end of the play, unlike Hamlet’s own. Preparing to fight Laertes, says to Horatio who is desperately trying to prevent the Prince from fencing, convinced he will lose: ‘There is special providence in the fall of a sparrow’ (5.2). This whole speech signifies the way Hamlet matures from admiring into exhibiting Stoic ideals, yet applying them in a more universal way than Horatio. Through hardship and experience Hamlet accepts Fate, but refuses to step aside and give up fighting for his cause. He takes Horatio’s logic and focus, acknowledges all the basis of the teachings of Stoicism, yet unites this with his burning desire to fight evil and restore justice. Horatio’s attempts to save Hamlet from death are doomed, because the protagonist believes the question about his own life has been decided, and thus no longer bothers him. A true Stoic does not fear death. Hamlet’s mysterious last words, uttered to Horatio, echo this: ‘†¦ the rest is silence’ (5. 2. 351) Furthermore, if at the beginning of the play Hamlet and Horatio lack the virtues of each other (Hamlet, unlike his friend, cannot distance himself from anxieties, whereas Horatio comes across as almost emotionally withdrawn), by the end different dimensions of both characters are revealed to us. Horatio, although still wise and composed, truly loves Hamlet. Realising the imminence of the Prince’s death, Horatio grabs the cup with the remaining poison, ready to follow his friend in death. Hamlet stops him and, on his deathbed, urges Horatio to remember the philosophy they both adored, and live by it: ‘If thou didst ever hold me in thy heart, Absent thee from felicity awhile, And in this harsh world draw thy breath in pain To tell my story. ‘ It is important that Hamlet hands over his secret to Horatio, trusting him to clear his name and justify his actions to posterity. Horatio obeys and we trust him to communicate the truth, restoring Hamlet’s innocence. Horatio’s character helps us to understand Hamlet better, to realise how the protagonist matures, and witness the best in him even as he lay dying. Shakespeare’s inclusion of Horatio and his relationship with Hamlet stresses the importance of nobility, dignity, felicity and other moral principles and virtues valued by the Ancient. And lastly, Horatio rules out a conclusive judgment concerning Hamlet’s death and his suffering, and tells of them as ‘carnal, bloody and unnatural acts’ ensuring the audience perceived those strong feelings too.